There are many analogies between Alasdair MacIntyre’s After Virtue and Richard Rorty’s Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, but to me, the most palpable has been that I took very, very long to get through them. Granted, they are indeed difficult, and rushing it would have left me even more confused than was now the case. Having finished and written one post on MacIntyre already, I have now finally concluded Rorty’s most famous work, and hope to be writing posts on both of them as time progresses.
Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature eludes fair summary, as it is the astonishing detail and breadth of learning underpinning its argument which is so stunning. It is the kind of book that, were it not so intelligently and coherently written, one would have doubted any single person would have the capacity to wade through the breadth of literature it invokes and of which it makes effective use. However, life being finite, one must try to summarise, synthesise, simplify. Rorty’s is an attempt to show how modern philosophy, meaning in particular Western philosophy since Descartes, has suffered from some absolutely fundamental misconceptions.
There are a number of ideas which Rorty wishes to repudiate. First and foremost, the idea of an inner realm, a Cartesian space which in some way “mirrors” the world as such outside of it, and through which we have access to privileged representations (basically, certain states of direct perception) which we can use to construct a foundationalist theory of knowledge. This idea rests on confusions initiated by Descartes between the soul as conceived of by the Greeks and conceived of as was required for Descartes methodological scepticism, his cogito. The historical argument is very detailed and at times complicated, at least to me, but what comes out is a rejection of philosophy’s role as “the queen of the sciences”, understood as arbiter of all other fields justified by its special method of inquiry into the nature of knowledge, which in turn rests on the idea of the mind as a mirror of the real world “outside” of us. If this were so, it is easy to see, Rorty says, how philosophy would be such a queen of sciences, as it would arbitrate the validity of knowledge claims, which are central to all the sciences (and arguably more than the sciences).
But the mirror of nature is an unhelpful metaphor, the foundationalist project impossible to achieve, and consequently, Western analytical philosophy as practised today fundamentally flawed. Moving the game from foundationalist epistemology to philosophy of mind or philosophy of language, as has been attempted chronologically (most recently in the so-called “linguistic turn”) won’t help, he further argues, and concludes that
I have argued that the desire for a theory of knowledge [the core of modern analytical philosophy] is a desire for constraint – a desire to find “foundations” to which one might cling, frameworks beyond which one must not stray, objects which impose themselves, representations which cannot be gainsaid. (1)
Such foundations, to repeat, cannot be had. Hence, philosophy has no special status, it is no privileged arbiter. It is merely another voice in a “conversation of mankind” which produces narrative, employs rhetoric, erects its own conventions about what is to count as rationality and objectivity, truth and falsity. Its role, Rorty ultimately concludes, is simply to be a particular voice participating in carrying on the discussion, different not because of its method or privileged understanding of something “deeper”, but merely a valuable input in light its professionals’ familiarity with important historical works and inventive ways to think about ethical and political problems.
The above is of course just a miniscule taster or Rorty’s views, and perhaps it would have been better to skip it and go straight to discussing the specifics I wish to discuss. But with Leibnizian optimism I cannot stop myself from thinking that setting the scene might capture some reader previously unfamiliar with Rorty’s fascinating work, and perhaps even enable them to read the rest of this post. So, in the rest of this post I shall be talking about one quite specific aspect of Rorty’s views – not only because of specificity of interest, but also, because any broader topic would strain the hours of spare time with which I am endowed.
Rorty argues that objectivity and rationality are conventional, that truth is always relative to a wider language system and community. “Truth”, he famously said, “is what your contemporaries allow you to get away with.” Hillary Putnam equally famously noted that there seemed to be a flavour of self-refutation in this, as it seems this statement, precisely, was one Rorty’s contemporaries did not let him get away with. Now, this quotation is unlikely a fair summary of Rorty’s view, but let me leverage it to initate a more serious discussion of the topic. What does it mean for someone who understands philosophy as a Wittgensteinian language game, and principles of good argument, yes, even the essence of truth, as fundamentally socially conventional, to make an argument about the weaknesses of current philosophy, and the appropriate direction for it? Rorty calls himself an “epistemological behaviourist”, meaning that he understands epistemological standards, i.e., standards about knowledge and belief, to be behavioural, contingent sociocultural particularities, in both the sciences and the humanities. Whether a belief is justified or warranted is a function not of its correspondence to reality but of its assertibility status within a language and community. Words, vocabularies, discourses are tools which may be more or less useful, but for which there are not independent standards of excellence or accuracy. This invites a variety of arguments, but again, I shall limit my discussion here to the question of what it is for an epistemological behaviourist to argue that philosophy is mistaken in the way Rorty does.
Let’s first outline the base argument for why doing so might be dilemmatic for a pragmatist of Rorty’s type. It is a very old argument against relativists and pragmatists of all hues, but comes in various forms depending on the particularities of the parties’ positions:
- The relativist says truth is what is socially or conventionally accepted; his view is not; and hence, relativism is false
- The relativist says that there is no truth, hence, what he says is not true
- The relativist says that there are no universal truths; what the relativist is proposing is a universal truth; hence, what the relativist is proposing is false
- The pragmatist says that truth is merely what it works well for us to believe, but since that belief would not work well for us to believe, it is false
These arguments are all slightly different, and it is not immediately obvious which of these or other version of the argument can be most effectively deployed against Rorty, though I take him to be, and will refer to him as, primarily a pragmatist. To bring in MacIntyre, and to initiate a comparison I hope to pursue considerably going forward, here is his version of the charge, directed at Rorty:
His [Rorty’s] dismissal of ‘objective’ or ‘rational’ standards emerges from the writing of genealogical history, as do all the most compelling of such dismissals – Niethzsche’s, for example. But at once the question arises of whether he has written a history that is in fact true /…/ the practice of writing true history requires implicit or explicit references to standards of objectivity and rationality of just the kind that the initial genealogical history was designed to discredit /…/ he is himself /…/ engaged in advancing a philosophical theory about the nature of such standards. And his theory he presumably takes to be true, in the same sense as that in which realists understand that predicate. (2)
There seems to be roughly two plausible ways in which a geneaologist like Rorty can respond. Either, he can insist that his writings be interpreted pragmatically, hence dropping any claim to truth, and suggesting merely that he is offering a story he thinks is better because it is, in some sense to be specified and perhaps explored, more useful that the old realist story. Alternatively, he can attempt something with greater resemblance to a claim to truth. He can claim to have shown that the realist view (whatever he takes it to be) is somehow incoherent on its own terms, rather than just less useful.
Kai Nilsen, in his concise defence of Rorty specifically against MacIntyre’s argument quoted above, presents Rorty as succeeding in doing the latter.
In writing a history, standards of rationality and objectivity are employed that in part at least are internal to the discipline. /…/ Starting with accepted standards of rationality and objectivity, those presently operative in our intellectual life (including, of course, philosophy and history), Rirty tries to show that, employing them carefully and concretely, one would end up with a considerable deconstruction of the conception of philosophy accepted in systematic analytical philosophy and earlier in the Kantian and Cartesian traditions. (3)
Leaving aside for the moment whether this is what Rorty actually tries to do, I either way struggle to see how this can do what the pragmatist wants it to do. If the goal is to point to the contingency of standards of rationality and objectivity, their social and cultural embeddedness, then how could that be achieved by applying conceptions of rationality and objectivity simultaneously argued to be contingent in just that way? For if they indeed were contingent in that way, all that has been shown is that a certain discourse (Western philosophy since Descartes) is incoherent on its own terms. But that leaves completely open the question of whether some other discourse, or a reformed version of the Western philosophical one, might not be thus internally incoherent, and so, would potentially not be touched by the argument. To drive home the global point that all discourses are necessarily incapable of adhering to some unique standards of objectivity and rationality, it seems one would need to make appeal to some universal principles which allows one to draw conclusions about the possibilities of discourses generally. But any principles which would allow such a general conclusion would necessarily constitute some kind of universal notion of objectivity and rationality. Hence, it would entail its own rejection, since it set out to show that no such principles exist.
Now, I don’t think the above argument is completely fair, or at least, if valid, it makes it appear as though the pragmatist necessarily has less going for him than he in fact might. It seems to me (though I won’t pursue it here) that a way forward would to agree to the existence of some very general principles of rationality, in order to be able to make the point that any discourse will in general depend on standards internal to it in assigning truth values to the sentences which are part of it. This is just a thought I haven’t developed (though others will have done so), but it is worth mentioning.
Returning to the pragmatist’s dilemma, we should Rorty does not seem to share the view of his own enterprise which Nilsen articulates in defence of him:
The trouble with arguments against the use of a familiar and time-honoured vocabulary is that they are expected to be phrased in that very vocabulary. They are expected to show that tcentral elements in that vocabulary are “inconsistent in their own terms” or that they “deconstruct tehmselves.” But that can never be shown. /…/ Such claims are always parasitic upon, and abbreviations for, claims that a better vocabulary is available. (4)
It might well be due to my misunderstanding of Nilsen, but to me this seems straightforwardly in tension with his defence of Rorty. Rorty explicitly distances himself from this line of pragmatism, and instead says that the “method” he advocates “is to redescribe lots and lots of things in new ways, until you have created a pattern of linguistic behaviour which will tempt the rising generation to adopt it” (4). In other words, we are asked to intepret Rorty pragmatically. Rather than offering arguments for a set of views, which adhere to some universal standards, he is telling us to “talk about things in this way instead”, “drop these old vocabularies”, “try approaching it thus”. In a word, Rorty is not saying “if you think about things this way you will be more right/closer to truth/more accurately reflecting reality in your beliefs”. Instead, he is saying, “think about things in this way! It will work better for you!”
But this line, of course, carries its own difficulties, which I don’t hope to resolve here, because I am as of yet far from sure how to evaluate it. To end, I will just highlight some potential points which might form part of a rebuttal. I have no idea, at this point, how to develop or move these points forward. First, one might try to argue that the aspects of philosophy Rorty criticises (or at least some of them) will always arise in human culture, because they arise in response to queries, questions, concerns that human beings will always entertain. If so, one might rebut that it is not the key issue whether such vocabularies are useful – they might be necessary in a way which stops the question of usefulness from arising.
Second, one might question whether persuasion is really all Rorty attempts (as is implied by judging vocabularies or discourses only by their utility). What I have in mind here is some kind of argument that Rorty is trying to persuade in a certain way, which in fact commits him to some principles of proper argument (rationality and objectivity) after all. We might try to tease this out by asking whether Rorty had preferred to persuade people through his learned book or through, say, mass hypnosis or populist TV adverts. Is his book really functionally equivalent, abstracting from local standards of argument, to such non-intellectual, in common parlance “irrational” or “emotional” ways of persuasion? Or is it possible to here tease out some commitment to some kind of distinction between different properties discourses might have, and a commitment to saying not only that some such properties make a discourse more useful, but maybe, actually, more accurate or well-judged, regardless of its utility?
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(1) Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979)
(2) Alasdair MacIntyre, ‘Philosophy and Its History’ (1982)
(3) Kai Nilsen, ‘How to Be Sceptical about Philosophy’ (1986)
(4) Richard Rorty, ‘The Contingency of Language’ in Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (1989)